Chapter 7: The Personalities of the Predecessors to
Bani Umayyah
"Verily in the Prophet
of Allah is the best example." --
Holy Qur'an (33:21)
One
of the primary sources of Islamic legislation is the testimony of the
Companions of the Prophet (the sahabah). Even in this day and age, just saying that a particular companion
said something is enough to engender complete respect of that companion and his
words and unquestioning compliance with what he or she said. For that reason, it is extremely important
to investigate what exactly makes a person a sahabah. After all, thousands of people, if not more,
were in the presence of the Holy Prophet (s), and yet many of them were enemies
of the Prophet (s) and therefore could not be relied upon. What makes an onlooker a sahabah?
Al-Qaamus
al-Muhit defines
suhbah (companionship) as "al-mu'aasharah al-mulaazimah"
which means living together or associating together inseparably. Raaghib al-Isfahahaani[1]
says: "This term applies only to
the one who is constantly and continuously in companionship." Therefore, according to these definitions, a
companion of the Prophet (s) would be someone who associated very closely to
the Prophet (s) regardless of whether he was a Muslim or a non-Muslim,
righteous or unrighteous, or whether he believed in him or disbelieved in him.
Islamic
jurists agree unanimously that for someone bear the title of
"companion", he or she must have been Muslim and must have sat with
the Prophet (s) for a long time (tallat mujaalasatuhu) while listening
attentively to him and learning from him, not just visiting him and leaving
without seeking knowledge.[2]
The
narrators (muhaddithun) knew the companion to be "every Muslim who
saw the Prophet (s)".[3] Others defined "companion" as
"any Muslim who lived during the time of the Prophethood even if he did
not see the Prophet (s)".[4] Still other narrators (muhaddithun)
further expanded the definition of "companion" to encompass every
Muslim who met the Prophet (s) and believed in him and then apostatized and
then came back to Islam again.[5]
The
Muslim ummah itself was divided into three categories in how they viewed
the sahabah:
(1) A minority sect of Muslims (al-firqa
al-kaamiliyah[6] and the ghulaat[7])
attributed kufr (apostasy) to all the companions. This view is of course completely rejected
by all the scholars of Islam in the Sunni and Shi'i traditions.
(2) 'Adaalat al-Sahabah. This group attributed absolute 'adaalah
(honesty and sincerity) to all the companions; this view is commonly held
within the Sunni tradition. For
example, al-Khatib al-Baghdad says:
"The justness of the sahabah is proven and firmly
established (thaabitatun ma'lumah)."[8] Ibn Hazm says: "Undoubtedly, all the Companions are of the people of
Paradise."[9]
Nevertheless,
many prominent jurists and scholars in the Sunni tradition rejected the idea of
the absolute righteousness of all of the companions. They included al-Sa'd al-Tafatahzaani, al-Maarizi, and
al-Shawqaani[10] as well as
scholars from a later generation such as Shaikh Muhammad 'Abduh, Shaikh Mahmud
Abu Riyah, and others.[11] They argued that the companions were not
infallible and so among them were the righteous and the unrighteous.
(3) The Qur'an, the Prophet (s), and Ahl
al-Bayt(as). According to the
Qur'an, the group of companions was composed of the righteous and the
unrighteous, the believers and the hypocrites, and while companionship was a
great honor, it did not assure infallibility; this view has been adopted by the
Shi'a scholars. The Qur'an does not
guarantee automatic righteousness to all of the companions of the Prophet (s),
nor does it grant all of them entrance into Paradise. Many of the righteous companions are praised and honored in the
Qur'an, while others have been criticized and cursed. The Qur'an says:
"And of those who are around you of the (rustic) Arabs (of the
desert) there are hypocrites; and from the inhabitants of Madinah (also);
Stubborn are they in hypocrisy; Thou knowest them not, We know them; twice will
We chastise them, then shall they be turned unto a grievous chastisement." (9:101)
It also says: "And Muhammad
is not but an Apostle, (Other) apostles have already passed away prior to him;
Therefore if he dieth or be slain, will ye turn upon your heels? And he who turneth upon his heels will by no
means do harm to God in the least, and shortly will God reward the grateful
ones." (3:144) These verses and others, such as those in Surah
al-Tawbah (Repentance) and Surah al-Munafiqun (The Hypocrites),[12]
indicate that a group of hypocrites existed among the Companions of the Prophet
(s).
In
many of the hadith, the companions themselves rejected each
other or refuted what other companions were saying. As for the leaders of the Islamic schools of thought, Abu Hanifah
has been said to have said that all the companions are pure except a few, and he mentioned some names.[13] Malik ibn Anas was asked what to do when two
narrators narrated contradictory hadith
from the Prophet (s) and whether both should be accepted. He replied that, no, the truth is only one,
and when he was asked about ikhtilaaf al-sahabah, or the disagreement of
the companions, he said that one side should be right and the other wrong, and
the matter had to be investigated.[14] And Shafi'i states that he does not accept
the testimony of four of the companions:
Mu'aawiyah, Amr ibn al-'Aas, al-Mugheerah, and Ziyaad.[15]
The
"Hadith of the Stars"
A
famous hadith called the "hadith of the stars"
states: "My companions are like
stars: whichever you follow, you will
be guided."[16] Although this hadith is pivotal to
the Sunni stance, Ahmad ibn Hanbal states that this hadith is
unauthentic.[17] Abu Ibrahim al-Muzni, a student of
al-Shafi'i, and his companions also doubted the authenticity of this hadith.[18] Abu Bakr al-Bazzaz attacked this hadith
and expounded upon its flaws.[19] Other narrators (huffaz) also mention
its weakness and the unreliability of its chain of narrators. They include: Abul Hasan al-Darqutni, al-Bayhaqi, Ibn Hazm, Ibn 'Abd al-Birr,
Ibn Asaakir, Ibn al-Jawzi, Ibn Daahiyah, Abu Hayaan al-Andalusi, Shams al-Din
al-Dhahabi, and, surprisingly, Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah.[20] Ibn Hajar al-Asqalaani too stated that,
although famous, this hadith had an unreliable and weak chain of
narrators (isnaad).
Given
these doubts, this hadith -- one of the most important pillars of the
concept of the absolute righteousness of the companions -- falls apart and is
shown to be nothing other than fabrication.
The
Flawlessness of the Companions in Established Hadith
The
Prophet (saawaws) has been established to have said: "I am the first who will reach the Fount (hawdh
al-kawthar). Some people will try
to reach me, but they will not be able to.
I will say: 'O my Lord, they are
my companions.' Allah will answer: 'You do not know what they have invented
after you.'"[21] By this hadith alone, some of the
Companions are shown to have erred.
Anyone who considers them all to be just will be violating this hadith. Anyone who considers them all to be just
will also have to answer why some of the Companions who killed 'Uthmaan ibn
'Affaan will also go to heaven simply because they were companions. And anyone who considers them all to be just
will have to considered why the outlaws who revolted against Imam 'Ali and
began civil war in the battles of Jamal, Siffin, and Nahrawan will also go to
Paradise.
The
Participation of the Companions in the Battles of Islam
Despite
popular misconception, neither Abu Bakr nor 'Umar nor 'Uthmaan participated
actively in the main battles of Islam.
Not until the time of Mu'awiyah did fabrications about their roles in
these battles begin to surface in the effort of Bani Umayyah to attribute the
virtues of ahl al-bayt (as) to others.
According to Ibn 'Arafah:
"Most of the hadith which have been fabricated and developed
in favor of the sahaabah and their virtues and their bravery and heroism
were fabricated during the time of Bani Umayyah to seek nearness to them and to
defy and humiliate Bani Haashim."[22]
Uhud
On
the day of Uhud, the Holy Prophet (saawaws) raised his sword and called: "Who can give this sword its
right?" 'Umar said: "I can," but the Prophet (saawaws)
turned away from him, for he knew that 'Umar would not do that. Zubayr said: "I can," but the Prophet (saawaws) refused him as
well. Then Abu Dujaanah stood and
asked: "What is the right of that
sword?" The Prophet (saawaws)
replied: "You fight with it until
it breaks." Abu Dujaanah
swore: "I am the one who will give
it its right," so the Prophet (saawaws) gave his sword to Abu Dujaanah.[23]
The
battle commenced. Tabari says:[24]
'Ali ibn Abi Taalib began slaying the leaders of the
battalions of the mushrikeen in Uhud who were carrying the banners. Whenever a leader of another battalion would
approach the Prophet (s), the Prophet (s) would look at him and say: "Start your strike on him," so he
would strike them and disperse them.
Group after group came, and 'Ali ibn Abi Taalib did the same until
Jibra'il came to the Prophet and said:
"O Messenger of Allah, this is real solidarity." The Prophet (s) said: "Yes, because he is part of me, and I
am part of you." Jibra'il
replied: "And I am from you both,
O Messenger of Allah."
What
happened next is recorded forever in the Holy Qur'an. Allah (swt) says:
"Behold, you were climbing up the high ground, without even casting
a side glance at anyone, and the Messenger in your rear was calling you
back." (3:153) This verse clearly indicates the opposition
the Holy Prophet (saawaws) faced in controlling his forces. Examining it deeper, its tafsir
explicitly refers to Abu Bakr, 'Umar, and the other companions -- all of whom
fled the scene except for ten who stood with the Holy Prophet (saawaws). Seven of those ten -- including one woman
named Naseebah Umm Amaarah Bint Ka'b who fought until she was wounded on her
shoulder -- were from the Ansaar, and two -- 'Ali ibn Abi Taalib (as) and Abu
Dujaaan -- were from the Quraysh.[25] As Muhammad Hasanain Hayqil says: "The main concern of every Muslim on
that day was to rescue himself and salvage himself -- except for those who had
been protected and blessed by Allah, such as 'Ali ibn Abi Taalib."[26]
The
Qur'an continues: "It was Shaytan
who caused them to fail because of some evil they had done." (3:153)
Most likely, the evil here was disobedience to the Holy Prophet
(saawaws). For although the Holy
Prophet (saawaws) ordered them to remain in their positions, they ran after the
war booty, and therefore the mushrikeen defeated them.
During
his caliphate, 'Umar recalled that incident when a lady came with 'Umar's
daughter asking for clothing. 'Umar
gave clothing to the lady but not to his daughter. When asked why he did what he did, he replied: "The father of that lady stood on the
day of Uhud and did not run away, but the father of this one" -- he
pointed to his daughter -- "ran away on the day of Uhud, and he did not
stand firm.[27] Abu Bakr too later referred to his flight on
that day.[28]
Although
most of the companions returned a few hours after the battle, 'Uthmaan
disappeared for three days.[29] When he returned, the Holy Prophet (saawaws)
admonished him: "It took you so long
to return, why three days?"[30]
Badr
A
similar situation arose during the Battle of Badr. On the eve of the battle, Abu Bakr and 'Umar staunchly refused to
fight. They told the Holy Prophet
(saawaws): "This is Quraysh; the
Quraysh are so powerful; the Quraysh never believed when they believed; the
Quraysh were never defeated because they are so powerful. So do not fight them." Displeased, the Prophet (saawaws) turned
away from them, until Sa'd ibn Ma'aadh promised the Prophet (saawaws): "Go, and we will fight with you to the
last breath." At that, the Prophet
(saawaws) became pleased again, and on the morning of the 17th of
Ramadhaan, the Muslims engaged the mushrikeen in the Battle of Badr.[31] Seventy
mushrikeen met their end in the Battle of Badr, half
by the sword of Imam 'Ali, and the other half with the help of the sword of
Imam 'Ali (as).[32]
Conversely, 'Uthmaan was not even present during
the Battle of Badr, just as he was absent from Bay'at al-Ridhwaan and fled Uhud
and Hunayn. During the battle of
Khandaq, he refused to fight Amr ibn al-Widd al-Aamir. Even after the death of the Prophet
(saawaws), he declined to participate in the wars against those who rejected
the caliphate of Abu Bakr. During the
time of 'Umar, too, he refused military service. He was known for avoiding war; a former ally of his, 'Abd
al-Rahmaan ibn 'Auf, said: "This
is a testimony of one of 'Uthmaan's friends:
I was not the one who was absent from Badr, and I was not the one who
ran away on the day of Uhud" -- meaning of course that 'Uthmaan was the
one who did.[33]
Khaybar
Khaybar
took place during the seventh year of the Hijrah about 160 km north of
Madinah. Due to the terrain and the
fortress that the Jews barricaded themselves in, the first attempt to break through,
led by Abu Bakr, returned defeated. The
second day, 'Umar led the Muslim army, but he too returned unsuccessful. As the historians say: "They returned not only defeated but
exchanging blames of cowardice on each other."[34] After the first two attempts failed, the
Holy Prophet (saawaws) declared:
"Tomorrow, I will give this banner, the leadership of this battle,
to a man who is loved by Allah and His Apostle, and he himself loves Allah and
His Apostle. Allah will open the way at
his hands. He will go forward and not
be defeated or retreat." At the
time, Imam 'Ali (as) was ill. Some of
the companions brought him to the Prophet (saawaws) as he leaned on them. The Holy Prophet (saawaws) prayed for him,
put the banner in his hands, and said:
"O Allah, may the heat and the cold not affect him
anymore." Imam 'Ali (as) later
said: "After the prayer of the
Prophet (saawaws), I did not feel any heat or cold."[35] From there, Imam 'Ali (as) went and defeated
Marhab, the leader of the enemies in the castle, and Marhab's two brothers,
Haarith and Yassir. [36]
Hunayn
The
Battle of Hunayn broke out only a few days after the conquest of Makkah in the
eighth year of the Hijrah. The
Prophet (saawaws) had brought 10,000 soldiers with him to recapture Makkah,
and, after their success, 2,000 more people in Makkah accepted Islam and joined
him. So the army of 12,000 met their
enemy in the valley of Hunayn between Makkah and the city of Taa'if.
Like
the Battle of Uhud, the Battle of Hunayn is mentioned in the Holy Qur'an: "Assuredly, Allah did help you in many
battlefields, and on the day of Hunayn; behold, your great numbers elated you,
but they availed you nothing; the land did constrain you, and you turned back
fleeing." (9:25-26) According to
the tafsir, Abu Bakr, seeing their numbers, had said: "No one will defeat us while we have
such a large number."[37] However, their numbers were
meaningless: faith, bravery, sincerity,
and willingness were what were important, and those qualities were lacking. Although many companions pledged that they
would not flee,[38] they did,
including Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthmaan, Ibn al-Jarrah, al-Mugheerah ibn Shu'bah,
Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, Ma'aadh ibn Jabal, 'Usayd ibn Hubayr, Khaalid ibn Waleed,
and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqass.[39] During the battle, Abu Sufyan, who had just
become Muslim two weeks before, said about the Muslims: "I wish their defeat would not stop,
and they would keep running away and fleeing until they reach the sea [the Red
Sea]."[40] Only four stood with the Holy Prophet: 'Ali ibn Abi Taalib (as), the uncle of the
Prophet (saawaws) al-'Abbas, Abu Sufyaan ibn al-Haarith (this Abu Sufyaan was
from Bani Haashim), and 'Abdullah ibn Mas'ud.[41] The rest of the companions fled the scene.
The
Conquests During the Time of the First Three Caliphs
Although
the Messenger of Allah (saawaws) always fought at the forefront of his army,
Abu Bakr, 'Umar, and 'Uthmaan never led their armies at all during their
caliphates. Instead, they sat in
Madinah and dispatched their forces.
For example, as soon as Abu Bakr assumed the caliphate, he sent Usaamah
ibn Zayd to fight the Romans rather than do it himself. When Usaamah asked why 'Umar was remaining
in Madinah, Abu Bakr said that he needed him there. When Usaamah then asked why Abu Bakr himself was remaining in
Madinah, Abu Bakr told him: "Just
lead the army and go."[42]
Despite
the unwillingness of the first three caliphs to participate in military
activity, the conquests during their caliphates were tremendous. The Islamic influence spread far, and during
the reign of 'Umar, the Persian and Roman Empires were both defeated. However, the caliphs sent the Muslims in the
battle less for military necessity and more to prevent political unrest. This trend is most visible in the advice
'Abdullah ibn Aamir gave 'Uthmaan ibn 'Affan to command the Muslims to fight to
busy themselves so that 'Uthmaan would have less difficulties with the
masses.
When
Banu Umayyah came to power, they fabricated stories saying that Imam 'Ali (as)
advised 'Umar and Abu Bakr not to lead their armies since they themselves were
the leaders of the people. Such stories
are obviously false since, during his caliphate, Imam 'Ali (as) led his troops
himself and so would not have advised another to do otherwise.
A
Brief Introduction to Some of the Companions of the Prophet (s)
Abu
Bakr ('Abdullah ibn 'Uthmaan). Abu Bakr was named 'Abdullah
by the Holy Prophet (s). [43] Before that, he was known as 'Abd al-Ka'bah
(the worshipper of the Ka'bah) and 'Ateeq.
Although A'ishah is said to have said that the Prophet (s) called Abu
Bakr 'ateeq Allah min al-naar, or the person whom Allah has vindicated
from the Fire,[44] sources
indicate that Abu Bakr's father called him 'ateeq long before Islam
because of the delicacy of his skin.[45] His mother's name is recorded to have been
Salma.
Abu
Bakr was the fifteenth man to embrace Islam,[46]
not the first as many erroneously believe.
He made a living selling clothing, as did 'Uthmaan ibn 'Affan, 'Abd
al-Rahmaan ibn 'Auf, and Talha.
'Umar
ibn al-Khattab ibn Nafeel ibn 'Uday ibn Ka'ab.[47] 'Umar
ibn al-Khattab was born thirteen years after the Year of the Elephant and so
was thirteen years younger than the Prophet (s), eleven years younger than Abu
Bakr, and seven years younger than 'Uthmaan ibn 'Affaan. While young, his mother was adopted by
Hishaam ibn al-Mugheerah, so she was known as Hantamah bint Hishaam ibn
al-Mugheerah.[48] He made a living as a broker.
'Umar
was the seventy-fifth man and sixty-sixth person to accept Islam. He did so right before the migration from
Makkah to Madinah; thus, he did not participate in the first hijrah to
Ethiopia.[49] Before joining the Muslims, 'Umar hated
Islam and the Muslims so severely that he beat his brother-in-law and hit his
sister when he discovered they had become Muslims.[50] Perhaps for this reason, 'Umar was chosen by
the rest of the Quraysh to kill the Prophet (s).[51] So, one day, 'Umar took his sword and went
to the house of Ibn Ab al-Arqam, where the Holy Prophet (s) was with his uncle
Hamzah and some of the companions. He
knocked loudly and burst into the house angrily. The Prophet (s) restrained him and shook him so hard that he was
thrown to the ground. Then he
said: "Isn't it time that you stop
your persecution and terrorization of the Muslims?" 'Umar replied: "I bear witness that there is no God but Allah, One with no
partner, and I bear witness that Muhammad is His servant and messenger."[52] These circumstances, which are well
documented, suggest that 'Umar's conversion resulted from an admonishment and a
veiled threat.
Throughout
his life, 'Umar was known for his toughness and audacity. He usually frowned, and he used his hand or
-- during his caliphate -- his stick (durrah) to punish people. He quickly angered and judged others with
the same rapidity. Even after accepting
Islam, Umar described the Prophet (s) as a "tree grown in the trash."[53] He was known to be particularly rough with
women, whether they were his daughters, his wife, his sisters, strangers, or
Fatimah al-Zahra (as), the daughter of the Holy Prophet (s), whom he beat. He wrote:
"I buried my daughter alive, and while I was burying her, she was
putting her hands on my beard to clean the dust from it."[54] Al-Ash'ath ibn Qays recalls that when he was
hosting 'Umar and one of his wives, in the middle of the night, 'Umar kept
beating his wife until he stopped him.[55] 'Umar told another one of his wives: "You are nothing but a toy that men
play with, and then you are abandoned."[56] Because he was so harsh, women usually
declined his proposals; one of those who refused him was Um Kulthum, the
daughter of Abu Bakr.[57]
'Umar
did not confine his abuse to the women of his household. When A'ishah was mourning the death of her
father Abu Bakr, he threatened to hit her if she did not stop, and, eventually,
he began beating her sister, Um Farwah, with his stick. So they stopped crying.[58] Another time, when he heard the cry of
another lady, he took it upon himself to enter her house and hit her with his
stick until her head-covering fell off.[59] When Zaynab died, 'Umar hit the women who
were crying over her until the Messenger of Allah (saawaws) seized his hand and
told him to stop.[60] And needless to mention is the tragedy when
'Umar attacked the house of the daughter of the Prophet (saawaws) and forced
her to miscarry the next grandson of the Holy Prophet (saawaws).
Because
of his violent tendencies, 'Umar was greatly feared. Bukhari relates an unusual story[61]
where some women were sitting with the Prophet (saawaws) and asking him
questions so enthusiastically that they raised their voices above the voice of
the Prophet (saawaws). 'Umar sought
permission to enter, and as soon as they heard him, they became afraid and put
on their hijab. After the
Prophet (saawaws) gave him permission, he entered, and the Prophet (saawaws)
laughed. 'Umar asked the Prophet
(saawaws): "Why do you laugh, O
Messenger of Allah?" The Prophet
(saawaws) replied: "I am surprised
at these women who were sitting next to me not wearing the hijab, but
the moment they heard your voice, they rushed to wear the hijab." 'Umar rebuked them: "You are the enemies of Allah; why do
you not fear the Prophet and you fear me?" They told him:
"Because you are harsher and more violent than the
Prophet." Bukhari considers this
narration to be an example of the virtues of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab.
In
another incident, 'Umar summoned a lady whose chastity he doubted to inquire
whether her pregnancy was legitimate.
Terrified, the woman miscarried, and her baby died. When 'Umar asked his aides whether he had to
pay the diyyah (blood money), they told him he did not because he was
only instructing her. However, Imam
'Ali (as) told him: "They misled
you, they ill-advised you, and you have to pay the diyyah of this baby
to its mother."
Men
too were on the receiving end of 'Umar's durrah. People said: "The stick of 'Umar is sharper than the sword of
Al-Hajjah," Al-Hajjah being a well-known tyrant who had killed thousands
of his opponents.[62] Ibn Sa'dah al-Hadhalah narrates: "I saw 'Umar ibn al-Khattab in the
market beating the merchants with his stick.
When they gathered around the food in the market, he wanted to disturb
them, so he used his stick."[63] When he was not using his stick, he often
used his hands, or his feet, or he bit people.
For example, he bit the hand of 'Ubaydallah ibn 'Umar, the son of a man
who called himself Abu 'Isaa, and warned him:
"Do not call yourself Abu 'Isaa since 'Isaa did not have a
father."[64] Again, in the market, he beat people for
purchasing red meat two days in a row.[65] And he beat Timeem al-Daarimi for performing
the sunnah prayers after the afternoon prayers.[66] He even beat the man who would later become
a well-known transmitter of hadith, Abu Huraira. Many of the companions referred to 'Umar's brutality, such as
Bilaal[67]
and 'Abd al-Rahmaan ibn 'Auf.[68] 'Umar himself knew he was too tough, and so
he prayed: "O my Lord, I am tough,
so make me soft."[69]
In
addition to using violence, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab also imprisoned many people
during his caliphate. Al-Dhahabi
relates that 'Umar detained three prominent companions: 'Abdullah ibn Mas'ud, Abu Dardah, and Abu
Mas'ud al-Ansaari.[70] According to Abu Bakr Ibn 'Arabi, they were
only released after 'Umar died.[71]
'Umar imprisoned these three because he feared they would spread certain ahaadith
from the Prophet (saawaws) that threatened his rule.
Because
they could not retaliate against him openly, people would aim their stones at
him during the stoning of the Shaytan at Hajj and cause him to bleed.[72] As was said about him:
Umar's toughness caused many of the Companions in
Madinah to react against him. Unlike
his predecessor Abu Bakr, he was known for his toughness, and he was sometimes
merciless.[73]
Umar
saw little value in the blood relationship between him and the Prophet
(s). When Safiyyah, the aunt of the
Prophet (s) whom the Prophet (s) respected considerably, lost her son, the
Prophet (s) consoled her by saying that Allah would build a house in Paradise
for whoever lost a child and was patient through the ordeal. Safiyyah was calmed, and the Prophet (s)
left. Then Umar came and told her: "Safiyyah, I heard your cries, and your
relationship to the Prophet will not help you on the Day of
Judgment." At that, she started
crying again. The Prophet (s) heard her
and said: "O my aunt, you are
still crying, and you heard what I said to you?" She replied: "No, O
Messenger of Allah, what made me cry again was when Umar said to me that my
relationship to the Prophet would not help me on the Day of
Judgment." Angered, the Prophet
(s) told Bilal to call the prayers, and, when the people assembled, he climbed
the pulpit, praised Allah, and asked:
"What is wrong with the people that they claim that my relationship
does not benefit them and is useless on the Day of Judgment? My relationship is binding in this world and
in the Hereafter."[74]
'Umar
is also recorded to have had a proclivity towards music and wine. [75] Sine wine was initially discouraged, rather
than prohibited, some Muslims drank between the revelation of the ayaat regarding
alcohol while others did not. 'Umar was
one of those who did drink, and, once, when he was drunk, he broke the head of
'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Auf and then sat and lamented in poetic verse the mushrikeen
who had been killed in the Battle of Badr.
When the Prophet (s) heard him, he came to 'Umar angrily and struck him,
and Allah revealed the third verse completely prohibiting wine (5:91). At that, 'Umar said: "We stopped (intahayna), we
stopped." [76] However, during his caliphate, 'Umar is
recorded to have continued asking for wine -- once when he was traveling to
Shaam (Syria),[77] and once
when he was traveling to Makkah, when he met a man named 'Abdullah ibn Ayaash
al-Maszumi and sipped his wine before passing it on to the man on his right. [78] Other stories also have been recorded, with
the last instance of 'Umar drinking wine being when he did his prayers during
which he was killed.[79] Some explain these stories by saying that
the wine that 'Umar drank after the time of jahilliyah was non-alcoholic.
As
well as wine, 'Umar is recorded to have had a fondness for singing and
music. He habitually listened to and
requested music. He is said to have
stayed awake until dawn to listen to singing (ghinaa').[80]
By
the time 'Umar became caliph, the Muslims already had the Qur'an in its
complete, present-day form, since the Prophet (s), had hand-picked scribes --
such as 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (as), 'Abdullah ibn Mas'ud, Abu Dardah, Zayd ibn
Thaabit, Ma'aadh ibn Jabal, and Saalim Mawlaa Abi Hudayfah -- who copied it
under his direct supervision. During
the lifetime of the Prophet (s), many of the companions -- forty-one of whom
are recorded by Ibn Nadeem[81]
-- had written the entire revelation by their own hands, and so each copy was
known as "the copy of 'Abdullah ibn Mas'ud", "the copy of Ibn
'Abbas", and so on.
Many
verses of the Holy Qur'an, such as 80:13-15, 76:77-79, 25:5, and 98:2, refer to
its preserved status during the lifetime of the Holy Prophet (s).
In
later times, some attempted to credit Abu Bakr and 'Umar for first compiling
the Qur'an, but those who did so neglected the earlier historical
references. In reality, 'Umar not only
lacked interest in the Qur'an, but he also cast serious doubt on its completeness
and authenticity. Oftentimes, he would
inform the people from the minbar that verses of
the
Qur'an had disappeared. Some, he said,
were lost with the death of the Prophet (s),[82]
and, according to Bukhari, as for others, he said: "Allah sent Muhammad with the truth, and He sent a book on
him, and we used to read verses in that book, and we don't find them
anymore." In this case, 'Umar was
referring to a verse which he thought he recalled about stoning adulteresses.[83] During the dawn prayers, 'Umar would recite
verses which no one else had ever heard; he called them "al-hafd (?)
wal-khul'".[84] As for the entirety of the Qur'an, 'Umar
mentioned that it was composed of 1,027,000 letters, while the extant Qur'an
consists of just over 300,000 letters. [85] And he would argue these points. Once, he asked Hudayfah, one of the original
transcribers of the Qur'an, how many verses were in Surah al-Ahzaab, and
Hudayfah answered that there were 72 or 73.
'Umar countered that the number of verses in that surah was
similar to the number of verses in Surah al-Baqarah -- that is, 286
verses -- implying that over 200 verses of the original surah had been
lost. [86] He also said flat out that Surah
al-Tawbah was only one-fourth of the original, and that it was first called
Surat al-Adhaab (Punishment) before the people changed its name to Surah
al-Tawbah (Repentance).[87]
Tafsir, or the interpretation of
the verses of the Holy Qur'an, was also not one of 'Umar's strong points. When people asked him questions about the
meaning of the Qur'an that he could not answer, he would discourage them from
asking and sometimes react violently.[88] When a man came to 'Umar and inquired what
verse 4:128 meant, Umar hit him rather than admit that he did not know the
answer. Similarly, when someone asked
'Umar what "fodder" meant in "We split the earth in fragments
and produce therein grain... and fruits and fodder,"[89]
'Umar reproached him, saying: "You
have the book of your Lord with you.
Practice what you know from it, and leave what you do not know." [90] According to Ibn Ab al-Hadid, 'Umar was not
overly concerned with the interpretation (tafsir) of the Qur'an and used
to say: "Just recite the Qur'an,
and do not interpret it (tufassiruhu)"[91]
since he himself did not know much about it.
Occasionally,
'Umar would hear verses of the Qur'an but not recognize them as such.[92] One day, 'Umar angrily interrupted a man who
was reading verse 11 from Surah al-Tawbah because he did not recognize
the verse and assumed the man was inventing it.
Defending
himself, the man asserted: "Yes, I
heard it from 'Ubay ibn Ka'ab," one of the transcribers of the
Qur'an. So 'Umar went to 'Ubay ibn
Ka'ab and asked him three times about the verse. Each time, he said:
"Yes, I received it from Prophet Muhammad." At that, Umar left raising his hands and
shouting "Allahu akbar, Allahu akbar," confessing that the verse was
authentic but that he had never heard it before.[93] Elsewhere, when 'Umar saw verse 9 of Surat
al-Jum'ah written on a table, he questioned: "Who dictated this verse to you?" Someone replied that 'Ubay ibn Ka'ab had
narrated the verse. 'Umar said: "The Prophet died, and we did not read
this verse the way it is written here."
He then continued that the verse should have read "fa'undhu ilaa
dhikr Allah" instead of "fa'saw ilaa dhikr Allah"
(with both versions having the same meaning of "march" or
"go").[94]
'Umar
himself knew that his knowledge of the Qur'an was lacking. Once, when he heard a man read verse 107 of Surah
al-Maa'idah, he told him: "You
are a liar." The man replied: "You are a liar." Another man interjected: "Are you denying that the Commander of
the Faithful is saying the truth?"
The man replied: "No, I
respect the Commander of the Faithful, but he is unaware of the
Qur'an." Umar admitted: "He is telling the truth (sadaq)."[95] As 'Ubay ibn Ka'ab, one of the scribers of
the Qur'an, commented: "I was busy
with the Qur'an during the time of the Prophet, but you were busy walking in
the markets and in the streets."[96]
An
assailant stabbed 'Umar ibn al-Khattab on Wednesday, four days before the end
of Dhul Hijjah in 23 AH.[97]
He was buried the following Sunday, the first day of Muharram, in 24 AH. His khilaafah lasted ten years, five
months, and 21 days. When he died, some
say he was 66 years old. As his
condition worsened, he realized that his life was about to end, and he began
addressing the subject of his impending death with apprehension and
anxiety. 'Abdullah ibn 'Ammar ibn
Rabi'ah relates:[98]
I saw 'Umar when he was on his deathbed, holding in
his hand a piece of straw. He raised it
and said: "I wish I were this
straw. I wish I was nothing. I wish my mother had not delivered me."
Soon
after, he said:[99]
I wish I were a male sheep in my family. They would feed me and fatten me and, once I
became fat, someone who likes my family would visit, so they would slaughter
me. They would grill part of me and dry
the second half. After that, they would
eat me and turn me into adharah.
And I wish I were not a human being.
He
expressed a similar sentiment again:[100]
I wish I were a tree on the side of the road, and a
camel would pass by and eat me, and start to chew me, and swallow me, and then
get rid of me as its droppings. I wish
I were not a human being.
These
statements raise many questions.
Perhaps 'Umar was regretting how he had treated the Prophet (saawaws),
how he had accused the Prophet (saawaws) of hallucinating[101]
or how he had delayed the burial of the Prophet (saawaws) until Abu Bakr had
returned to participate in the power-sharing.[102] Perhaps he was regretting tugging on the
clothes of the Prophet (saawaws) while he was reading Salaat al-Janaazah[103]
or raising his voice above the voice of the Prophet (saawaws) despite the
command of the Qur'an to the contrary (49:2).
Or perhaps, at the time of his death, the incident at the house of
Fatimah came to mind.
Just
before he perished, 'Umar was resting his head in the lap of his son
'Abdullah. He asked his son to put his
cheek on the ground. His son did not
listen, so 'Umar repeated his words harshly.
As soon as his cheek touched the earth, 'Umar said: "Woe to 'Umar and to the mother of
'Umar if Allah does not forgive 'Umar."
Uthmaan
ibn 'Affaan
Before
assuming the caliphate, 'Uthmaan had agreed to follow the policies of his
predecessors. However, after becoming
caliph, he reverted to the jahiliyyah practice of privileging his own
relatives. Aware of 'Uthmaan's
tendencies in that direction, 'Umar had warned him to refrain from nepotism on
the grounds that the people would reject it and the Quraysh would loose power, [104]
but 'Uthmaan could not or would not heed this advice. Unlike Abu Bakr and 'Umar, 'Uthmaan filled the official positions
with his own tribesmen such as Abu Sufyan, Marwaan ibn al-Hakam, Mu'awiyah ibn
Abi Sufyaan, Al-Waleed ibn 'Uqbah, 'Abdullah ibn Abi Sarh, and Sa'eed ibn
al-'Aas. In doing so, he angered many,
even those on the side of Quraysh such as A'ishah, the wife of the Prophet
(saawaws). Particularly upset were
those who lost power due to 'Uthmaan's nepotism such as Amr ibn al-'Aas, who
lost Egypt; Al-Mugheerah ibn Shu'bah, who lost Kufa; and Abu Musa al-Ash'ari,
who lost Basra. Adding insult to
injury, 'Uthmaan then appointed incompetent and corrupt individuals from Bani
Umayyah to fill those positions. As a
result, some of those townships revolted, and in Kufa, for example, the people
ousted 'Uthmaan's choice and reinstated Abu Musa al-Ash'ari.[105]
'Uthmaan's
nepotism led to his assassination and the awaited succession of Imam 'Ali ibn
Abi Talib (as) to the caliphate. After
Imam 'Ali (as) was murdered, power shifted again to the Quraysh alliance under
the rule of Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan.
Learning from 'Uthmaan's errors, Mu'awiyah balanced political with
tribal alliances and followed 'Umar's practice of appointing allies from outside
his own tribe to official positions.
Hence, Amr ibn al-'Aas, Al-Mugheerah ibn al-Shu'bah, Abu Hurayrah (may
God have mercy upon him), Al-Nu'maan ibn Basheer, and 'Abd al-Rahmaan ibn
Khaalid all found places in the new caliphate, and even A'ishah was pacified.
The
main reason 'Uthmaan was killed was for financial mismanagement. A'ishah was the first to censure him
regarding that. While both the Prophet
(saawaws) and Abu Bakr had distributed the revenue from the treasury equally,
'Umar had begun to shift the distribution in favor of his allies. Thus, 'Umar had assigned A'ishah, the
daughter of Abu Bakr; Hafsa, his own daughter; and Um Habiba, the daughter of
Abu Sufyan 12,000 dinars a month while providing the rest of the wives of the
Prophet (s) with only 5,000 dinars per month.
When 'Uthmaan came to power, he wanted to lower A'ishah's stipend to
match that of the others, and she became angry at him.[106] According to Tabari, she was the first
person to turn away from 'Uthmaan,[107]
and she is recorded to have said:
"Kill Na'thal [the nickname she gave to 'Uthmaan], for he
disbelieved."[108]
Further
information about these individuals can be found in the history of Tabari.[109]
A
Dialogue between 'Abdullah ibn al-'Abbas and 'Umar ibn al-Khattab
'Abdullah
ibn al-'Abbas and 'Umar ibn al-Khattab spoke many times. On one occasion, they debated whether Bani
Haashim should hold the caliphate:[110]
'Umar: Do you know why the people did not elect you [the family of the
Prophet] to the caliphate?
Ibn
'Abbas: No, I do not know.
'Umar: I know what the reason was.
Ibn
'Abbas: What was it?
'Umar: The Quraysh hated to see Prophethood and the Caliphate vested in
one house. If that had happened, you
would have wronged the people.
Ibn
'Abbas: Can Amir al-Mu'mineen
control his anger if I want to say something?
'Umar: Say whatever you want to
say.
Ibn
'Abbas: If you say the Quraysh hated
to see this, Allah in the Qur'an has said about some of the companions: "That is because they hate the
revelation of Allah, so He has made their deeds fruitless."[111] And if you say that we will do injustice if
both Prophethood and the Caliphate are vested in our family, then if we are
supposed to do mischief, we will do mischief even without being caliphs or
successors simply because we are the family of the Prophet (saawaws) and the
closest people to him. But we will not
do that because our stance, morality, and attitude mirrors the attitude of the
Prophet (saawaws), about whom Allah (swt) says: "Verily, you stand on an exalted standard of character."[112] And Allah said again: "Lower your wing to the believers who
follow you."[113] We will not depart from him, so why are you
worried that if we become caliph we will do mischief? If you say: "The
Quraysh chose Abu Bakr and 'Umar", Allah answers: "Your Lord creates and chooses as He
pleases. No choice have they in the
matter."[114] And you know, 'Umar, that Allah has chosen
certain people from among His creatures to lead humanity. If the Quraysh had joined their vision with
the plan of Allah, then the community would have been prosperous and
successful.
'Umar: Calm down, Ibn 'Abbas.
You members of Bani Haashim, your heart only wanted to deceive the
Quraysh permanently, and you hold perpetual hatred and animosity towards the
Quraysh.
Ibn
'Abbas: Calm down yourself, 'Umar, do not say that
the hearts of Bani Haashim are deceitful.
Their hearts are part of the heart of the Messenger of Allah. It is the same heart of the Messenger of
Allah (saawaws) that Allah has cleansed and purified, and they are the family
of the Prophet (saawaws) whom Allah describes as: "Allah only wishes to remove all abomination from you, O
Members of the Family of the Prophet, and to make you pure and spotless."[115] If you speak of animosity and grudges in our
heart, this would be natural given that our right has been usurped from us and
is in the hand of a transgressor.
'Umar: What are you saying, Ibn 'Abbas?
I have heard some bad things about you, and if I mention them to you,
you would lose your respect in my eyes.
Ibn
'Abbas: What have you heard about me? Tell me.
If it is false, I will defend myself.
If it is true, I would never lose my respect in your eyes.
'Umar: I have heard you telling people that this issue [the khilaafah]
was taken from the Family of the Prophet out of jealousy and injustice.
Ibn
'Abbas: Regarding jealousy, yes, that is true,
because Iblis was jealous of Adam and forced him from Paradise. We are the children of Adam, and there is
always jealousy among us. If you say
"transgression", you know better who has the right in this matter
[the khilaafah], and you, 'Umar, are the best person to answer this
question. Did you not say, 'Umar, that
the Arabs are closer to the non-Arabs to the Prophet (saawaws), and did you not
say that the Quraysh are closer than the other tribes to the Prophet
(saawaws)? If you have said that, then
when you come to the Quraysh, who among them is closest to the Prophet
(saawaws)? Of course they are Bani
Haashim. I am using the same analogy
that you did. We have more right to the
khilaafah than the other people of Quraysh.
'Umar: Stand up and go home.
Ibn
'Abbas stood. While he was leaving,
'Umar said: "You who are leaving,
come back. Despite what has happened
between us, you are still respected in my eyes."
Ibn
'Abbas answered: "You who are khalifah
now, we also have to preserve your right."
After
Ibn 'Abbas left, 'Umar turned to the people around him and said: "I never saw Ibn 'Abbas discuss
something with anyone and not defeat him."
The
Innovations of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab
According
to historical records, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab prided himself on his improvements
to the teachings of the Qur'an and the Prophet (saawaws). Although Abu Bakr and 'Uthmaan both adjusted
religious law for special cases,[116]
'Umar relied almost entirely on his own opinion and encouraged others to do the
same. When he appointed Shurayh
al-Qaadi as the religious judge, he instructed him: [117]
If you are searching for a verdict, then look in the
Book of God. If you do not find one, look in the Tradition of the Prophet. And if you do not find it in the Tradition
of the Prophet, then make a verdict yourself
Similarly,
he wrote to Abu Musa al-Ash'ari:
"If you do not find an answer in the Book or the Tradition, then
make an analogy and develop an answer yourself." [118] For these reasons, Tabari says that people
preferred not to take their disputes to 'Umar, for he was known for judging by
his personal beliefs rather than Islamic criteria.[119]
Some
of the practices that 'Umar is best known for changing are the adhaan,
prayer without tahaarah, tarawih prayers, prayers for the
deceased, and the laws of divorce.
The
Adhaan. Initially, "Al-salaat
khayrun min al-nawm" ("prayer is better than sleep") was not
part of the adhaan. But, one
morning, 'Umar's servant came to wake 'Umar for prayer by calling to him: "Al-salaat khayrun min al-nawm". Approving of that phrase, 'Umar instructed
the mu'adhdhin to include it in the adhaan from then on.[120]
Prayer
without Tahaarah. Bukhari narrates that, one
day, a man came to 'Umar and said:
"I am in a state of janaabah and cannot find
water." 'Umar told him: "Do not pray." 'Ammar ibn Yassir, who was sitting there,
said:[121]
Do you not remember that you and I were in a
battalion going to the battles, and both of us woke up and found ourselves in a
state of ritual impurity, and we did not find water. So you did not pray, but I did tayammum in the dust. We mentioned this to the Prophet, and the
Prophet said that you could have put your hands in the dust and did tayammum.
The
Qur'an too prescribes tayammum for situations when water cannot be found
(4:43). Most of the Sunni schools of
thought follow the Qur'an in this regard.
Only the Hanafi school follows 'Umar's opinion and indicates that tayammum
is permissible only while traveling or ill and that, in other cases, a person
who cannot find water for tahaarah should not pray.
Taraawih Prayers. Bukhari narrates from 'Abdullah ibn 'Abd al-Qaari:
I went with 'Umar ibn al-Khattab during his rule as khalifah
one night of Ramadhaan to the mosque.
We saw the people praying scattered, not together. 'Umar said:
"It is best if those people can pray together, and there is only
one who leads the prayers." So he
gathered them and appointed 'Ubay ibn Ka'b to lead the prayers.
Another night, I went with 'Umar to the mosque and
saw that the people were praying together, organized, and 'Umar said: "What an excellent innovation (ni'm
al-bid'ah haadhihi). [122]
Prayers
for the Deceased. Although Ahmad ibn Hanbal,
Muslim, and Nisaa'i all relate that the Prophet (saawaws) read prayers over the
deceased with five takbiraat, [123]
'Umar reduced the number of takbiraat in prayers over the deceased from
five to four.[124]
Three
Divorces in One Session. According to the Holy Qur'an
(2:229), a couple may divorce three times before they are no longer allowed to
remarry.[125] Divorce must be pronounced in three separate
sessions, as the Holy Prophet (saawaws) explained: [126]
A man came to the Prophet and told him: "I divorced my wife." The Prophet asked: "How did you divorce her?" He said: "Three
times in one session." The Prophet
said: "That divorce is considered
only one divorce. It cannot be
considered three divorces, so you may bring your wife back to yourself."
However,
historians say that when divorce became more prevalent during the second
caliphate, 'Umar allowed men to read all three pronouncements of divorce at on
time.[127]
Other
Innovations. 'Umar also:
The
History of the Adhaan
The
majority of the Sunni commentators maintain that the Prophet (saawaws) learned
the adhaan from a companion named 'Abdullah ibn Zayd. Tirmidhi, Abu Dawud, and Ibn Maajah say the
Prophet (saawaws) asked his companions how he should inform people about the
time for prayer. Some said he should
use a banner, others said a horn, and others said a bell, like the
Christians. Those narrators say that
night 'Abdullah ibn Zayd had a strange dream:
'Abdullah ibn Zayd saw a man carrying a bell in his
hand. He asked if he could buy the
bell, and the man asked him what he wanted it for. 'Abdullah ibn Zayd said:
"I want to use it to call the people to prayer." The man replied: "I can teach you something better than ringing the
bell" and then taught 'Abdullah ibn Zayd the adhaan.
In
the morning, according to these commentators, 'Abdullah ibn Zayd told the
Prophet (saawaws) his dream. The
Prophet (saawaws) replied: "This
is a true dream that you have seen.
Come with me to Bilaal. Teach
him what you have seen in the dream, and let Bilaal learn the adhaan." The story concludes that when 'Umar heard
the adhaan, he told the Prophet (saawaws): "I swear I saw the same dream," and the Prophet
(saawaws) said: "Praise be to Allah."
Clearly,
this story cannot be true, for surely Allah (swt), the Merciful, the
Compassionate to humankind, would not provide detailed revelation and then omit
an important practice such as the adhaan. Another explanation -- which is the one accepted by Shi'a
scholars -- is:[130]
Jibra'il came to the Prophet (saawaws) while the
Prophet (saawaws) was resting on Imam 'Ali (as). Jibra'il read the adhaan to them. The Prophet (saawaws) turned to Imam 'Ali
(as) and said: "Did you hear the adhaan?" Imam 'Ali (as) said: "Yes." The Prophet (saawaws) said:
"Did you memorize it?"
Imam 'Ali (as) said:
"Yes." The Prophet
(saawaws) said: "Then call Bilaal;
let us teach him the adhaan."
So they called Bilaal and taught him the adhaan.
Because
it came from Jibra'il, the adhaan is considered to be part of the
revelation and not a dream seen by one of the companions.
[1] Al-Mufradaat fi Ghareeb al-Qur'aan, the section on sahab
[2] Miqbaas al-Hidayah, al-Darajaat al-Rafi'a 10
[3] Mukhtasar 2:67
[4] Miqbaas al-Hidayah
[5] Ibn Hajar al-Asqalaani 1:10
[6] The Kamilites
[7] Those who attributed divinity to certain indivudals
[8] ibn Hajar, al-Isaabah 1:17
[9] ibn Hajar, al-Isaabah
1:19; ibn 'Abd al-Birr, al-Isti'aab 1:8; ibn al-Atheer, Usd
al-Ghaabah 1:3, et al.
[10] al-Sa'd al-Tafatahzaani, Sharh al-Maqaasir 5:310; al-Maarizi, al-Isaabah 1:19; al-Shawqaani, Irshaad al-Fuhul
[11] Shaikh Muhammad Abduh, Adwaa 'alaa al-Sunnah Muhammadi; Shaikh Mahmud Abu Riyah, Abu Hurairah 1:01
[12] Surah 9 and surah 63, respectively
[13] ibn Abul Hadid, Sharh Nahl al-Balaagah
[14] ibn 'Abd
al-Birr, Jaami' Bayaan al-'Ilm
[15] Abul Fidaa, Al-Mukhtasar fi Akhbaar al-Bashar
[16] "Ashaabi kal-nujum..."
[17] Al-Taysir
fi Sharh al-Tahreer 3:243, al-Muntakhab, ibn Qudaamah, et al.
[18] Ibn 'Abd al-Birr, Jaami' Bayaan al-'Ilm 2:89
[19] Ibn 'Abd al-Birr, Jaami' Bayaan al-'Ilm, 2:90; I'laam al-Muwaqqa'in 2:223; al-Bahr al-Muhit5:528
[20] I'laam al-Muwaqqa'in 2:223
[21] Sahih al-Bukhari, include reference; Sahih Muslim, Baab al-Hawdh, 7:65; Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 5:333
[22] Ahmad Amin, Fajr al-Islaam, p. 213
[23] Al-Bayhaqi, Dalaa'il al-Nubuwwah, 3:218; Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma'arif, p. 159
[24] Tabari 2:197; Ibn Athir, Al-Kaamil fil-Tarikh, 2:154
[25] Sahih Muslim 5:78; Dalaa'il al-Nubuwwah; al-Bayhaqi, 3:234; al-Dhahabi, Tarikh al-Islam, p. 191
[26] Hayqil, Hayatu Muhammad, p. 244
[27] Ibn Abel Hadid, Sharh Nahj al-Balaaghah 15:22
[28] Muhammad Hasanain Hayqil, Hayat Muhammad, p. 245
[29] Mafaatih al-Ghayb, 9:53; Tafsir al-Fakhr al-Raazi, 3:198; Al-Seerah al-Halabiyyah, 2:227
[30] Ibn al-Athir, Al-Kaamil fil-Tarikh, 2:158; Ibn Kathir, Al-Bidayah wal-Nihayah 4:32; Tarikh al-Tabari, 2:203
[31] Ibn Kathir, Al-Seerah al-Nabawiyyah, 2:391-395; Dalaa'il al-Nubuwwah 3:106; Al-Bidayah wal-Nihayah, 3:321
[32] Maghaazi al-Waaqidi 1:152; Dalaa'il al-Nubuwwah 3:124
[33] Ibn Shabbah, Tarikh al-Madinah al-Munawwarah, 3:1033
[34] Al-Haythami, Majma' al-Zawaaid, 9:124; Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:465, hadith #1155; Muhammad Hasanain Hayqil, Hayat Muhammad, p. 312
[35] Al-Dhahabi, Tarikh al-Islam, 2:412
[36] Al-Sirah
al-Halabiyyah 3:39; Maghaazi al-Waaqidi, 2:654; Sirat ibn Hisham,
3:349; Tarikh al-Tabari, 2:200, et. al.
[37] Al-Zamakhshari, Tafsir al-Kashshaaf, 2:259; Tarikh Abul Fida, 1:208; Al-Seerah al-Halabiyyah, 3:110
[38] Sunan al-Nisaa'i, 3:871 hadith #3877
[39] Maghaazi al-Waaqidi, 2:904
[40] Maghaazi al-Waaqidi, 2:904
[41] Tarikh al-Khamis p. 102; Al-Seerah al-Halabiyyah 3:109
[42] Tarikh al-Tabari, 2:462
[43] Ibn Qutaybah;, Al-Ma'aarif 167
[44] Tarikh al-Tabari 2:615
[45] Tabaqaat ibn Sa'ad 3:187
[46] Tarikh al-Tabari 2:316
[47] Tarikh al-Madinah al-Munawwarah 2:654
[48] Ibn al-Atheer, Usud al-Ghaabah 4:145
[49] Tarikh al-Tabari 5:17
[50] Al-'Aqqad, 'Abqariyat 'Umar, p. 33
[51] Ibn Ishaaq, A-Seerah al-Nabawiyyah 160; Ibn Asaakir, Mukhtasar Tarikh Dimishq 18:271
[52] Ibn Asaakir; Mukhtasar Tarikh Damashq 18:269
[53] Tadhkiraat al-Fuqahaa 2:470; Sahih al-Bukhari 8:94-95; Sahih Muslim 7:92-93; and others
[54] Al-'Aqqad, Abqariyat
'Umar, 33
[55] Sunan Ibn Maajah, 1:693, Musnad Ahmad, 1:20
[56] Ibn al-Jawzi, Tarikh 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, p. 114; (author?), Al-Shaykhaan, p. 189
[57] Al-Tabari, Tarikh al-Umam wal-Muluk, 5:17; Ibn Athir, Al-Kaamil fil-Tarikh, 3:54
[58] Ibn Haajir, Al-Isaabah, 3:606; Ibn Sa'd, Tabaqaat Ibn Sa'd, 3:208
[59] Ibn Abel Hadid, Sharh Nahj al-Balaaghah, 3:111
[60] Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 1:237; Mustadrak al-Haakim, 3:191
[61] Baab al-Tabassum, 4:63
[62] Tarikh al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah, 2:686
[63] Tabaqaat Ibn Sa'd, 5:60
[64] Umdat al-Qaari', 7:143
[65] Al-Haythami, Majma' al-Zawaa'id, 5:35
[66] Al-Haythami, Majma' al-Zawaa'id; Sahih Muslim, 1:310; Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 4:102
[67] Al-Suyuti, Tarikh al-Khulafaa', p.130
[68] Ibn Abel Hadid, Sharh Nahj al-Balaaghah, 1:55
[69] Tarikh al-Khamis, 2:241
[70] Al-Dhahabi, Tadhkirat al-Huffaz, 1:2; Adwaa' 'alaa Sunan Muhammadiyyah, p. 45
[71] Abu Bakr ibn al-'Arabi, Al-Awaasim min al-Qawaasim, p. 75-76
[72] Tabaqaat Ibn Sa'd, 5:64
[73] Tabaqaat
Ibn Sa'd, 5:60; Umdat al-Qaari', 7:143; Sahih Muslim, 1:310; Musnad
Ahmad, 4:102; Ibn al-Jawzi, Sirat 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, p. 174; Kanz
al-'Umaal, 4:334; et al.
[74] Al-Haythami, Majma' al-Zawaa'id 8:216
[75] Al-'Aqqad, Abqariyat 'Umar 61:265
[76] "Intahayna, intahayna"; Al-Mustadraf 2:499-500; Jaami' al-Bayaan 2:211
[77] Tabaqaat Ibn Sa'd 3:230
[78] Muwatta' Maalik 2:894
[79] Sahih al-Bukhari (what reference?); Tabaqaat Ibn Sa'd 3:257; Isti'aab Ibn 'Abd al-Birr 3:1154
[80] Sunan al-Kubra al-Bayhaqi 5:69; Al-Muhalla 9:62; Ibn Sa'd ,Al Tabaqaat al-Kubraa 4:163
[81] Ibn Nadeem, his fihrist, p. 41
[82] Al-Suyuti, Al-Durr al-Manthur, 5:179
[83] Bukhari, 10:43; Abu Ubaydah, Al-Itqaan 2:42; Al-Suyuti, Al-Durr al-Manthur, 1:106
[84] Al-Suyuti, Al-Durr al-Manthur 3:296; Al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, Kanz al-'Ummal, 8:74-75,78
[85] Al-Suyuti, Al-Durr al-Manthur, 6:222; Al-Haythami, Majma' al-Zawaa'id, 7:163; Kanz al-'Ummal, 1:517
[86] Musnah Ahmad 5:132; Mustadrak al-Haakim 2:415; Sunan al-Bayhaqi, 8:211
[87] Mustadrak
al-Haakim 2:330; Al-Suyuti, Al-Durr al-Manthur, 1:105; et al.
[88] Al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, Kanz al-'Ummal1:229; Al-Suyuti, Al-Durr al-Manthur, 6:321
[89] 80:31
[90] Al-Suyuti, Al-Durr al-Manthur 6:317; Al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, Kanz al-Ummal 2:328
[91] Ibn Ab al-Hadid, 3:120
[92] Kanz al-Ummal, 2:568 hadith #4744
[93] Al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, Kanz al-'Ummal, 2:605
[94] Sahih al-Bukhari 3:201
[95] Ibn Shabbah, Tarikh al-Madinah al-Munawwarah, 2:709
[96] Al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, Kanz al-'Ummal-- where?
[97] Ibn Atheer, Usd al-Ghaabah
[98] Al-Suyuti, Tarikh al-Khulafaa, p. 129
[99] Al-Suyuti, Tarikh al-Khulafaa, p. 142; Muntakhab Kanz al-'Ummaal, 4:361; 6:365
[100] Muntakhab Kanz al-'Ummal, 4:361
[101] Sahih Bukhari, 1:120, Kitaab al-'Ilm; Sahih Muslim, 11:89
[102] Tarikh al-Tabari, 2:442; Sirat ibn Hishaam 4:305
[103] Sahih al-Bukhaari, Kitaab al-Libaas; Kanz al-'Umaal, hadith #4403
[104] Ibn al-Athir, Al-Kaamil fil-Tarikh, 3:67
[105] Ibn Sa'd, Al-Tabaqaat, 5:33
[106] Tarikh al-Ya'qubi, 2:132
[107] Tabari, 5:72
[108] Tarikh al-Tabari, 3:477
[109] Tarikh al-Tabari, 2:452
[110] Tarikh al-Tabari 5:30; Qasas al-'Arab, 2:363; Ibn al-Atheer, Al-Kaamil fil-Tarikh, 3:63; Ibn Abel Hadid, Sharh Nahj al-Balaaghah, 3:107
[111] 47:9
[112] 68:4
[113] 26:215
[114] 28:68
[115] 33:33
[116] For example, Abu Bakr was unwilling to prosecute Khaalid ibn al-Waleed, who killed Maalik ibn Nuwayrah and, on the same night, committed adultery with this victim's wife. Abu Bakr said: "He made ijtihaad, but of course he made an error," and left the matter at that.
[117] Muhammad al-Khudari, Tarikh al-Tashri' al-Islaami, p. 83
[118] Muhammad al-Khudari, Tarikh al-Tashri' al-Islaami,p. 83
[119] Al-Tabari, 2:617
[120]
Jalaal al-Deen al-Suyuti, footnoted in Tanweer al-Hawaalik referencing Muwatta'
Maalik; Sunan al-Tirmidhi 1:64
[121] Sunan al-Nisaa'i, 1:169; Sunan ibn Maajah, 1:188; Al-Bayhaqi, Al-Sunan al-Kubraa, 1:209; Tafsir ibn Katheer, 4:505; Ibn Qudaamah, Al-Mughni, 1:234; Ibn Rushd, Al-Bidayah wal-Nihayah, 1:63
[122] Sahih al-Bukhaari, 3:58; Tarikh al-Madinah (al-Munawwarah?), 2:713; Al-Riyaadh al-Naadhirah, 1:309; Tarikh al-Ya'qubi, 2:114
[123]
Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 4:370; Sahih Muslim, Baab al-Salaat
'alaa al-Qabr, Kitaab al-Janaazah
[124] Al-Suyuti, Tarikh al-Khulafaa, p. 137
[125] Al-Jassas, Ahkaam al-Qur'aan, 1:378
[126] Sirat ibn Ishaaq, 2:191
[127] Sunan Muslim, Chapter of Talaaq al-Thalaat, 1:575; Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 1:314; Al-Bayhaqi, 7:336
[128] Umdat al-Qaari', 4:87; Sahih al-Bukhaari, 2:102; Sahih Muslim, 2:238
[129] Tabaqaat ibn Sa'd, 5:51; Umdat al-Qaari', 7:143
[130] Wasaa'il al-Shi'ah, 4:612